Use of avermectin derivative for increasing bioavailability and efficacy of macrocylic lactones

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to the use of avermectin derivative as a drug for the treatment of parasitic infections. The avermectin derivative is represented by the formula (I) where: (i) R1 is chosen from the group constituted of —CH(CH3)2, —CH(CH3)CH2CH3, or cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH2—CH2—, or —CH═CH—, (iii) R2 is chosen fromor an OH group, (iv) R3 is OH or NOH, (v) represents a single bond when R3 is OH, or a double bond when R3 is NOH, as an inhibitor of a membrane-bound protein which transports exogenous compounds out of target cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/988,073, filed May 24, 2018, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/352,669, filed Apr. 17, 2014, which is a National Stage entry of International Application No. PCT/EP2012/070704, filed Oct. 18, 2012, which claims priority to European Patent Application No. 11306348.1, filed Oct. 18, 2011. The disclosure of the priority applications are incorporated in their entirety herein by reference.

The present invention relates to the use of avermectin derivative in association with macrocyclic lactones as a formulation for the treatment of parasitic infections.

Parasitic infections are the most frequent diseases for livestock or domestic animal. In spite of recent advance in veterinary pharmaceutical research, it is always necessary to find out more efficient and safe drug or formulation to fight against parasitic infections. For humans, the parasitic infections such as onchocerciasis caused by infection by Onchocerca volvulus, lymphatic filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori, or tropical parasitic diseases are still frequent diseases in developing countries. By the way, though endemic in some developing countries, intestinal strongyloidiasis and cutaneous parasitic diseases also pose a threat to the developed world.

The macrocyclic lactones (ML) are a family of broad spectrum anti-parasitic drugs that was developed in early 80s and have been widely used for the treatment of both internal and external parasites in pets, in livestock and in humans. MLs are also efficient for treating parasitic diseases caused by benzimidazole-, levamisole-, and pyrantel-resistant strains of nematodes.

MLs are a family of compounds isolated from soil microorganisms belonging to the genus Streptomyces. Macrocyclic lactones comprise avermectins and milbemycins. Avermectins comprise ivermectin, abamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin or selamectin, while milbemycins comprise moxidectin, nemadectin, and milbemycin oxime.

The principal action of MLs in parasitic nematodes is to increase membrane permeability to chloride ions by interacting with the glutamate-gated chloride channel subunit. The glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-agonist activities of the MLs are the mechanisms that lead to the paralysis and death of the treated parasites at nanomolar concentration. In fact, MLs maintain open the glutamate-gated channels that blocks pharyngeal pumping and inhibits of feeding, which is one of the effects that cause the death of parasite. By the way, ivermectin leads also to activation and paralysis of body muscle in Haemonchus contortus (Sheriff et al., Vet. Parasitol., 2005, 128(3-4), 341-346), and inhibits worm reproduction in Onchocerca volvulus (Schulz-Key, Acta Leiden, 1990, 59(1-2), 27-44).

However, in the last years, widespread MLs resistance has been observed in some nematode parasites of sheep, goats and cattle. The cause and mechanism of MLs resistance are yet not completely understood, but recent research has showed that MDR (multidrug resistance) transporters are a group of protein implied in the MLs resistance. MDR transporters are membrane proteins belonging to the ABC (ATP binding cassette) family, and whose main function is the ATP-dependent transport of a number of structurally unrelated exogenous compounds. Due to their expression in the plasma membrane, they function as a permeability barrier for the passage of xenobiotic across the cell membrane by actively expelling them out of the cells. MDR transporters have been considered as one of the causes of chemotherapy effectiveness restriction, when the tumor cells overexpress these transporters. MDR transporters also limit the entry of MLs into human target organism and affect the efficiency of MLs as antiparasitic. In addition, the expression of MDR transporters in intestine, liver and kidney allows them to detoxify these tissues, and ultimately eliminate the substrate drugs out of the systemic circulation, exerting a protecting action against their toxicity but also restricting their therapeutic efficacy.

P-glycoprotein (Pgp), localized in the apical membrane, is one of MDR transporters. The main function of Pgp is the active efflux of various structurally unrelated exogenous compounds to protect both vertebrate and invertebrate organisms against potentially toxic molecules. Pgp can transport its substrate from the baso-lateral side to the apical side of epithelia and endothelia. Pgp plays also an important role in blood-brain barrier, since it can limit the concentration of xenobiotics in the brain. The overexpression of Pgp is one of cause of drug resistance observed during avermectin treatment for parasitic infections or some tumor chemotherapy.

Later, other multidrug resistance proteins MRP1, 2 and 3 (ABCC1, 2 and 3) are also discovered. They are also involved in multidrug resistance and provide complementary and overlapping activities as multispecific drug efflux pumps

The more recently discovered Brest Cancer Resistance protein is ABCG2, which assists Pgp to prevent unwanted material in the circulation from passing into the brain. Homologues of MDR transporters exist also in parasite, and the selection and/or modulation of expression of their gene could be one of the reasons of the resistance of parasite to MLs.

Different methods have been developed in the past years to overcome the effectiveness restriction due to the efflux pumps of administrated drug. One of them is the use of MDR transporters inhibitors which can block efflux pumps of administrated drugs to improve intracellular concentration of active ingredient. Some Pgp ligands have been reported in the past, such as cyclosporine A, its derivative PSC833 (Valspodar®), the antidiarrheal opioid drug loperamid, or verapamil. However, unfortunately, till today, because of important toxicity of these MDR transporters inhibitors, neither of them can be applied in pharmaceutical use.

MLs have been firstly observed as substrates of MDR transporters. Later, it was found that MLs, in particular ivermectin, are also inhibitors of MDR transporters.

In spite of the fact that ivermectin can efficiently inhibit MDR transporters, it can not become a candidate drug, because of its important neurotoxicity if it penetrates in the brain at high concentration. In fact, ivermectin interacts with GABA receptors, a complex situated in nervous system. The abnormal function of GABA receptors can lead to neurologic, mental, vegetotropic, somatic, hormonal and other disorders. Since inhibition of MDR transporters is still the most promising method to restrain chemotherapy resistance; and macrocyclic lactone are still key molecules for treating parasitic infections, it is necessary and urgent to find new safe and efficient inhibitors of MDR transporters.

The objective of the present invention is to provide an inhibitor of multidrug resistance proteins.

Particularly, the present invention concerns the use of an avermectin derivative compound of formula I

wherein:

(i) R₁ is chosen from the group constituted of —CH(CH₃)₂, —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, or cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH₂—CH₂—, or —CH═CH—, (iii) R₂ is chosen from the group constituted of

or —OH group,

(iv) R₃ is OH or NOH,

(v)

represents a single bond when R₃ is OH, or a double bond when R₃ is NOH, as an inhibitor of a membrane-bound protein which transports exogenous compounds out of target cells.

When R₂ represents —OH group, the compound of formula I is an aglycone avermectin.

When R₂ represents

the compound of formula I is a monosaccharides of avermectin.

The Inventors of the present invention have surprisingly observed that aglycone avermectins or monosaccharide of avermectins expose a comparable inhibitory potency and efficiency with that of ivermectin or Valspodar®, the last is one of the most efficient MDR inhibitors already known. Moreover, the Inventors have observed that aglycone avecmectins or monosaccharide of avermectins have a higher inhibitory potency for nematode Pgp than that for murine Pgp. This particularity enables aglycone avermectin or monosaccharide of avermectins to be used as adjuvant for conventional antiparasitic, which suffer from an efficiency restriction due to efflux pump by intermediate of Pgp of parasite. The most surprisingly, aglycone avermectins or monosaccharide of avermectins exhibit a weak agonist for GABA receptors, which means that aglycone avermectins have weaker neurotoxicity compared to avermectin, especially ivermectin.

“A membrane-bound protein which transports exogenous compounds out of target cells” can be a membrane-bound ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter protein which mediates cellular efflux of distinct drugs or chemicals of a wide variety of structure and function. Particularly, such membrane-bound protein can be P-glycoprotein (ABCB1), mutidrug resistance associated protein family, including MRP1/ABCC1, MRP2, MRP2, or breast cancer resistant protein (ABCG2).

The inhibitor of such membrane-bound protein is a compound which can bind to said membrane-bound protein and thus reduce the affinity of said membrane-bound transporter with another substrate. The inhibitory potency of an inhibitor can be measured according to any conventional method, such as using a reference fluorescent substrate (ex: rhodamine 123 for Pgp) of the transporter and by measuring the intracellular accumulation of this substrate.

Another aspect of the present invention concerns the use of a compound of formula I, as adjuvant for increasing bioavailability of an active ingredient of a drug whose efflux out of target cells depends on a membrane-bound protein which transports exogenous compounds out of target cells.

The term “adjuvant” refers to a molecule which has no therapeutic potency when it is administrated alone, but can improve therapeutic potency of another molecule when it is simultaneously administrated with said another molecule.

The avermectin derivative compound of the present invention, which efficiently inhibits a membrane-bound protein, in particular ABC proteins, enables to improve intracellular concentration of the active ingredient of a drug, consequently, to restore or improve efficiency of said drug.

More particularly, the present invention is related to avermectin derivative compounds of formula I:

wherein: (i) R₁ is chosen from the group constituted of —CH(CH₃)₂, —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, or cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH₂—CH₂—, or —CH═CH—, (iii) R₂ is chosen from the group constituted of

or —OH group,

(iv) R₃ is OH or NOH,

(v)

represents a single bond when R₃ is OH, or a double bond when R₃ is NOH, for its use as an adjuvant of a drug.

In one particular embodiment, the invention concerns an avermectin derivative compound of formula I for its aforementioned use, wherein:

(i) R₁ is chosen from the group constituted of —CH(CH₃)₂ and —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, (ii) X represents —CH₂—CH₂—, (iii) R₂ is —OH, (iv)

R₃ is —OH, said compound corresponding to ivermectin aglycone of formula I(a):

In another particular embodiment, the invention concerns an avermectin derivative compound of formula I for its aforementioned use, wherein:

(i) R₁ is chosen from the group constituted of —CH(CH₃)₂, and —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, (ii) X represents —CH₂—CH₂—, (iii) R₂ is

(iv)

R₃ is —OH, said compound corresponding to monosaccharide of ivermectin of formula I(b).

In another particular embodiment, the invention concerns an avermectin derivative compound of formula I for its aforementioned use, wherein:

(i) R₁ is chosen from the group constituted of —CH(CH₃)₂, and —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, (ii) X represents —CH═CH—, (iii) R₂ is —OH, (iv)

R₃ is —OH, said compound corresponding to formula I(c):

A compound of formula I(c) can be eprinomectin aglycone, eprinomectin monosaccharide, emamectine aglycone, emamectine monosaccharide, abamectine aglycone or abamectine monosaccharide.

In another particular embodiment, the invention concerns an avermectin derivative compound of formula I for its aforementioned use, wherein:

(i) R₁ is cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH═CH—, (iii) R₂ is —OH or

(iv)

R₃ is —OH, said compound corresponding to doramectin monosaccharide or doramectine aglycone of formula I(d):

In another particular embodiment, the invention concerns an avermectin derivative compound of formula I for its aforementioned use, wherein:

(i) R₁ is cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH₂—CH₂—, (iii) R₂ is —OH or

(iv)

R₃ is ═NOH, said compound corresponding to selamectin or selamectin aglycone of formula I(e):

In one particular embodiment, the avermectin derivative compound of the present invention is used as an adjuvant of an active ingredient chosen from the group comprising an antiparasitic, an antitumor agent, an antiviral agent, an anti-epileptic agent, an antibacterial agent, in particular an antibiotic, an antifungal or any compound which is substrate of said membrane-bound protein.

Such active ingredient can be any active ingredient used in an antiparasitic, antitumor agent, antiviral agent, or anti-epileptic agent known in the art.

In one particular embodiment, the antiparasitic is chosen from the group comprising macrocylic lactones, such as the avermectins, in particular ivermectin, abamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin or selamectin, or the milbemycins, in particular moxidectin, nemadectin, or milbemycin oxime.

In another particular embodiment, the antitumor agent is chosen from the group comprising:

-   -   antibiotic antitumor of type anthracycline, such as         daunurubicin, doxorubicin, mitocycin C, mitoxantron, adriamycin,         and actinomycin, or     -   taxanes, such as docetaxel, paclitaxel, or     -   alcaloides, such as vinblastin, vincristin, or     -   epipodophyllotoxins, such as etoposide, irinotecan, teniposide,         et topotecan.

In another particular embodiment, the antiviral agent is chosen from the group comprising: HIV-1 protease inhibitors, ritonavir, saquinavir, nelfinavir and indinavir and non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors such as efavirenz.

In another particular embodiment, the anti-epileptic agent is chosen from the group comprising: Phenobarbital (PB; 5-ethyl-5-phenyl-2,4,6-trioxohexahydropyrimidine), topiramate, lamotrigine phenytoin (PHT; 5,5-diphenyl-2,4-imidazolidinedione), and carbamazepine (CBZ;5H-dibenz[b,f] azepine-5-carboxamide).

In another particular embodiment, the antibacterial agent can be an antibiotic, such as loperamide, monensin, or the macrolides.

In another particular embodiment, the antifungal agent is chosen from an azole antifungal, such as itraconazole or ketoconazole.

Another aspect of the present invention is to provide a composition comprising a compound of formula I, in particular I(a), I(b), I(c), I(d) or I(e) for its use as drug.

Particularly, the present invention concerns a composition comprising a compound of formula I, in particular I(a), I(b), I(c), I(d) or I(e) for its use as drug in the treatment of parasite infections, viral infections, chemotherapy resistant cancers, epilepsy, bacterial infections or fungal infections.

The present invention concerns also a synergic composition comprising:

-   -   a compound of formula I, in particular I(a), I(b), I(c), I(d) or         I(e),     -   an active ingredient chosen from antiparasiticide, an antitumor         agent, an antiviral agent, an anti-epileptic agent, an         antibacterial agent, in particular an antibiotic, or an         antifungal agent.

More particularly, the composition of the present invention comprises:

-   -   a compound of formula I, in particular I(a), I(b), I(c), I(d) or         I(e), and     -   an active ingredient chosen from an antiparasiticide, an         antitumor agent, an antiviral agent, an anti-epileptic agent, an         antibacterial agent, in particular an antibiotic, or an         antifungal agent,         for its use as drug in the treatment of parasite infections,         viral infections, chemotherapy resistant cancers, epilepsy,         bacterial infections or fungal infections.

The present invention provides also a pharmaceutical composition comprising:

-   -   a compound of formula I, in particular I(a), I(b), I(c), I(d) or         I(e), and optionally     -   an active ingredient chosen from an antiparasiticide, an         antitumor agent, an antiviral agent, an anti-epileptic agent, an         antibacterial agent, in particular an antibiotic, or an         antifungal agent, and     -   a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can be any conventional pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention can be used in the treatment of parasite infections, viral infections, chemotherapy resistant cancers, epilespsy, bacterial infections or fungal infections.

The pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention can be administrated by oral route, subcutaneous injection, intravenous injection, or intra-tissue injection.

The pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention can be administrated with a diary dose from 0.01 mg/kg to 0.5 mg/kg

The present invention concerns also a kit which is a product containing

-   -   a compound of formula I, and     -   an active ingredient chosen from an antiparasitic, an antitumor         agent, an antiviral agent, an anti-epileptic agent, an         antibacterial agent, in particular an antibiotic, or an         antifungal agent,         as a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or         sequential use in the treatment of parasite infections, viral         infections, chemotherapy resistant cancers, epilepsy, bacterial         infections or fungal infections.

The present invention is illustrated in detail by following figures and examples. However, in any way, the figures and the examples can not be considered as a limitation of the scope of the present invention.

FIGURES

FIG. 1A: FIG. 1A represents the HPLC profile of ivermectin and ivermectin aglycone.

FIG. 1B: FIG. 1B represents the HPLC profile of ivermectin aglycone and monosaccharide of ivermectin.

FIG. 2: FIG. 2 represents the mass spectrometric profile of aglycone ivermectin.

FIG. 3: FIG. 3 compares the maximum effective concentration of Valspodar® at 5 μM (VSP, grey column), ivermectin at 5 μM (IVM, white column) and ivermectin aglycone at 10 μM (Agly IVM, black column) in LLCPK1 cells transfected with murine Pgp. Cells are incubated in a buffer containing rhodamine 123 with or without increasing concentrations of drugs and intracellular fluorescence was determined. Y axis represents intracellular fluorescence expressed as percent of the control value (cell incubated without drug). Look at also example 2.2.

FIG. 4A: FIG. 4A compares the inhibition of murine Pgp by ivermectin (open square) with that of ivermectin aglycone (black square) in LLC-PK1-mdr1a. X axis represents concentration of ivermectin or ivermectin aglycone. Y axis represents intracellular rhodamine accumulation compared to control value. Look at also example 2.3.

FIG. 4B: FIG. 4B compares the inhibition of nematode Pgp (HcPgpA) by ivermectin (open square) with that of ivermectin aglycone (black square) in LLC-PK1-HcPgpA. X axis represents concentration of ivermectin or ivermectin aglycone. Y axis represents intracellular rhodamine accumulation compared to control value. Look at also example 2.3.

FIG. 5: FIG. 5 shows concentration-response curves of rat GABA(A) receptor expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Concentration-dependent potentiation of the GABA receptor, presented as the percentage of the GABA-evoked response at EC₁₀ (2 μM). Y-axis represents normalized response to GABA receptor according to the protocol described in the part 1.7 below. X-axis represents the concentration of moxidectin (MOX), ivermectin (IVM), ivermectin monosaccharide (IVM Monosaccharide), or ivermectin aglycone (IVM aglycone). Data were fitted to the Hill equation and are given as mean±S.D. Look at also example 2.4

FIG. 6: FIG. 6 illustrates toxicity of ivermectin (open circle) and ivermectin aglycone (black circle) in Pgp-deficient mice. X axis represents the dose of ivermectin or ivermectin aglycone administrated to mice. Y axis represents the percentage of survival mice after one week administration. Look at also example 2.5.

FIG. 7: FIG. 7 illustrates the reversion of drug-resistance by ivermectin aglycone in human lymphoma parental CEM cells and in vinblastine resistant CEM/VBL cells. CEM/VBL cells were incubated 4 days with vinblastine alone from 0 to 1 μg/ml (black square), or with vinblastine from 0 to 1 μg/ml and ivermectin (IVM) at 2.5 μM (open square), or with vinblastine from 0 to 1 μg/ml and ivermectine aglycone (IVM-Agly) at 2.5 μM (open circle), or with vinblastine from 0 to 1 μg/ml and ivermectine aglycone (IVM-Agly) at 5 μM (black circle). CEM cells were incubated 4 days with vinblastine alone from 0 to 1 μg/ml (−*−). X axis represents vinblastine (VBL) concentration. Y axis represents cytotoxicity determined using the MTT test. Values are mean±S.E.M. of 2 experiments (3 wells per experiment). Look at also example 2.6.

FIG. 8: FIG. 8 illustrates the reversion of drug-resistance by ivermectin aglycone in multidrug resistant cells DC-3F/ADX which are resistant to actinomicyne D. Multidrug resistant cells DC-3F/ADX were incubated 3 days with actinomycin alone from 0.01 to 10 μM (open square), or with actinomycin from 0.01 to 10 μM and ivermectin (IVM) at 5 μM (grey square) or with actinomycin from 0.01 to 10 μM and ivermectin aglycone (IVM-Agly) at 5 μM (black triangle). X axis represents actinomycin D concentration. Y axis represents cytotoxicity determined using the MTT test. Values are mean±S.E.M. of 2 experiments (3 wells per experiment). Look at also example 2.6.

FIG. 9: FIG. 9 shows reversion of ivermectin-resistance by ivermectin aglycone in Caenorhabditis elegans resistant to ivermectin. Ivermectin resistance in C. elegans is determined according to the protocol described in part 1.9 below. X axis represents ivermectin concentration. Y axis represents the percentage of gravidity compared to control. Gravidity was evaluated in the presence of ivermectine (IVM) alone at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20 ng/ml (open circle), or ivermectin at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20 ng/ml with verapamil at 8 μM (-x-), or ivermectin at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20 ng/ml with ivermectin aglycone (IVM Agly) at 10 ng/ml (11.4 nM) (black square). Assays were performed in 3 replicates per condition treatment and the experiment was performed 3 times. Mean±S.D. Look at also example 2.7.

EXAMPLES

1. Materials and Methods

1.1 Ivermectin Aglycone Synthesis

Ivermectin aglycone (22,23-dihydroavermectin B1 aglycone) is obtained from ivermectin by acid hydrolysis (1% of sulphuric acid). Ivermectin aglycone is purified by HPLC according to the method described by Alvinerie et al. (Ann Rech Vet, (1987), 18, 269-274).

1.2 Ivermectin aglycone structure analysis

-   -   HPLC

The protocol of HPLC experiment is as follows: the product obtained after synthesis reaction is analysed by HPLC according a modified method routinely used in the INRA laboratory. Briefly a fluorescent derivative was obtained by dissolving the eluent in N-methylimidazole and trifluoroacetic anhydride (Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis., USA) solutions in acetonitrile. The chromatographic conditions included a mobile phase of acetic acid 2%, methanol, acetonitrile (4:32:64, v/v/v) pumped at a flow rate of 1.5 ml/min through a Supelcosil C18, 3 μm column (150×4.6 mm) (Supelco, Bellefonte, Pa., USA). Fluorescence detection (Detector RF 551, Shimadu, Kyoto, Japan) was performed at 365 nm excitation and 475 nm emission wavelength. The validation of the technique was performed (Alvinerie at al, 1993, Vet Res 24 (5): 417-21).

-   -   Mass Spectrometer

Structural characterization of the purified products was conducted on the platform Axiom of INRA/ToxAlim, on a LCQ quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer (Thermo Finnigan, Les Ulis, France) fitted with an electrospray ionization source operated in the positive mode. The protocol of mass spectrometer assay is as follows: collected samples were introduced into the ionization source by infusion at a flow rate of 5 L/min with a syringe pump.

1.3 Cell Culture

The cells used were LLC-PK1, pig kidney epithelial cell lines, and LLC-PK1-mdr1a which are recombinant LLC-PK1 cells overexpressing murine abcb1a gene. All cell lines are available in INRA laboratory. The transfected cell line LLC-PK1-HcPgpA, which overexpress nematode Haemonchus contortus PgpA, was developed by R. Prichard (McGill University). Cells were cultured in medium 199 supplemented with penicillin (100 units/ml), streptomycin (100 g/ml), 10% of foetal calf serum and geneticin G418 (400 mg/1) as selecting compound for the LLC-PKI-mdr1a and LLC-PK1-HcPgpA cells. All compounds and medium are from Invitrogen, Cergy Pontoise, France. Cells were seeded on 24-well plates (Sarstedt, Orsay, France) at 2×10⁵ cells/well in G418-free medium until confluence for transport activity and on 96-well plates for viability assay.

Multidrug resistant tumor cells used in the present invention were Human lymphoma parental CEM and vinblastine-resistant CEM/VLB (Zordan-Nudpo et al., 1993) and parental CEM and multidrug resistant cells DC-3F/ADX selected from spontaneously transformed DC-3F Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts on the basis of their resistance to actinomycin D (Biedler and Riehm, 1970). Both types of resistant cells overexpressed Pgp.

1.4 Animal Model

Wild-type and the Pgp knock-out mdr1ab^(−/−) mice with a FVB genetic background were obtained from Taconic (NY, USA). In rodents, there are two Pgps encoded by abc1a and abc1b genes and mdr1ab^(−/−) mice were deficient for the two gene products. Mice were housed at INRA's transgenic rodent facility at 22±2° C. under 12-hour light/dark cycles. Animals sampling was designed to reduce the influence of interfering parameters such as litter specificity (seven to nine different litters for a ten animals group). Mice received a standard chow diet recommended for the breeding and rearing of rodents (Harlan Teklad TRM Rat/Mouse Diet; Harlan Teklad, Gannat, France). Water and food were available ad libitum. In vivo studies were conducted in mice under European laws on the protection of animals and protocols are performed under procedure and principal for good clinical practice.

1.5 Tested Molecules

Ivermectin aglycone obtained according to the synthesis method described in part 1.1 and purified is used in all the comparative experiments of the present invention.

Ivermectin purchased from Sigma is used as inhibition standard in all the comparative experiments of the present invention.

Valspodar® was kindly provided by Novartis and is used as reference inhibitor of Pgp.

All the three aforementioned compounds are solubilised in DMSO.

1.6 Transport Tests In Vitro

Cells were cultured with rhodamine 123 (10 μM, purchased from Sigma) with or without valspodar (VSP, 504). Compounds of interest were dissolved in DMSO and diluted in the medium (final DMSO concentration=0.1%) in a concentration range of 0.1-50 μM. After the 2-h incubation period, the cells were lysed and lysates were stored at −20° C. until analysis. To study the Pgp transport activity, the intracellular accumulation of fluorescent Rho 123 was determined by reading fluorescence in the cell lysates with a spectrofluorimeter (PerkinElmer LS50B, max excitation=507 nm; max emission=529 nm). Protein concentration was determined in lysates with BCA kit using bovine serum albumin as protein standard (Thermo scientific) Results were expressed as fluorescence arbitrary units after normalization to cellular protein content per well.

1.7 GABA Receptor Affinity Test

The ability of ivermectin or moxidectin or ivermectin aglycone or ivermectin monosaccharide to interact with GABA receptors is assayed by electrophysiology measurements. Xenopus laevis oocytes are injected with 46 nl of RNA solution, with RNA coding for α1, β2 and γ₂ subunits of the GABA channel at a ratio of 10:10:50 nM. The injected oocytes are incubated in modified Barth's solution [90 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, 0.82 mM MgSO₄, 0.41 mM CaCl₂, 0.34 mM Ca(NO₃)₂, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin and 100 μg/ml kanamycin, 5 mM HEPES pH 7.6] at 18° C. for approximately 36 h before the measurements to ensure the expression of a functional receptor.

Electrophysiological experiments are performed by the two-electrode voltage-clamp method. Measurements were done in ND96 medium containing 96 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 1 mM gCl₂, 1.8 mM CaCl₂ and 5 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, at a holding potential of −80 mV. The control current is evoked by the application of 2 μM GABA and the normalized relative potentiation of 2 μM GABA-evoked currents by increasing concentration of ivermectin, moxidectin, ivermectin aglycone, or ivermectin monosaccharide is determined as:

[(I _(MLs+2 μM GABA) /I _(2 μM GABA alone))/(I _((MLs+2 μM GABA)Max) /I _(2 μM GABA alone))]×100%

where I_(2 μM GABA) is the control current evoked by 2 μM GABA, I_(MLs+2 μM GABA) is the current evoked by each drug concentration in co-applications with 2 μM GABA, and I_((MLs+2 μM GABA)Max) is the maximal current evoked by co-applications of drugs and 2 μM GABA. A washout period of 4 min between each GABA application is introduced, allowing receptors to recover from desensitization. Three different batches of oocytes are used to collect data for each analysis. The perfusion system is cleaned between two experiments by washing with 10% DMSO after application of MLs derivatives to avoid contamination.

1.8 In Vivo Toxicity Test

Toxicity of ivermectin and ivermectin aglycone is measured in Pgp-deficient mice. Mdr1ab^(−/−) mice are injected subcutaneously with increasing doses of ivermectin or ivermectin aglycone formulated in propylene glycol/formaldehyde (60:40, v/v). Higher injected doses are 1.5 mg/kg (1.7 μmol/kg) for ivermectin and 16 mg/kg (27 μmol/kg) for ivermectin aglycone, respectively. Toxicity is evaluated during 24 h. At the end of the monitoring, plasma is collected, from the orbital sinus vein under methoxyflurane anesthesia and the mice are sacrificed for the brain collection. Blood is centrifuged at 1500 g for 10 min, and plasma is stored at 20° C. until analysis. The brains is removed, washed in saline solution, and frozen at 20° C. until analysis.

1.9 Ivermectin Resistance Assay in Caenorhabditis elegans

A gravid assay method, based on the development of eggs to gravid adults over a 96 hr incubation period, was used to determine the resistance with respect to ivermectin (IVM) in C. elegans. The eggs were collected through rinsing the C. elegans worms resistant to IVM (IVR10). Sixty eggs were incubated/well, in standard conditions for four days (96 hours) in order reach adulthood (gravid) in the presence of drugs as followed: ivermectin aglycone (IVM-Agly) alone at 10 ng/ml (11.4 nM); verapamil (VRP) alone at 8 μM; IVM alone: 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20 nM; IVM+VRP 8 μM: 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20 ng/ml IVM; IVM+IVM-Agly 10 ng/ml: 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20 ng/ml (0.114-22.8 nM) IVM. Assays were performed in triplicates per condition treatment and the experiment was performed 3 times.

2. Results

2.1 Ivermectin Aglycone Synthesis

Ivermectin aglycone is obtained from ivermectin by acid hydrolysis, which cuts the chemical bond between macrocycle and disaccharide group. The product obtained after this reaction is a mixture of about 80% ivermectin aglycone and 20% monosaccharide of ivermectin, as showed by structure profile performed by HPLC (FIGS. 1A and 1B). Ivermectin aglycone obtained by said synthesis method is characterised by a hydroxyl group on carbon C13 of macrocycle (FIG. 1B) and a 3 minutes of retention time in our chromatographic conditions, shorter than that of ivermectin (5 minutes) or that of monosaccharide derivative (4 minutes).

The obtained product is then analysed by mass spectrometry, which confirms the presence of a mass pick at 609.3 which corresponds to ionised ivermectin aglycone (FIG. 2), while the mass pick of native ivermectin aglycone is at 586.8.

2.2 Ivermectin Aglycone Inhibitory Potency for Pgp in Cell Model

Ivermectin aglycone inhibitory potency for transport activity of Pgp is assayed in transfected cells LLCPK1-mdr1a overexpressing murine Pgp (mdr1a). Maximum inhibition has been obtained with Valspodar®, the most powerful reference inhibitor of Pgp known in the past. It is confirmed that ivermectin is an inhibitor of Pgp as powerful as Valspodar® (FIG. 3). It is also shown that ivermectin aglycone has a comparable efficacy to inhibit murine Pgp to that of ivermectin, with maximal effect (Eurax) at about 10 μM (Table 1, FIG. 3).

TABLE 1 Inhibitory effect of ivermectin and ivermectin aglycone in cells overexpression murine Pgp Ivermectin Ivermectin aglycone EC₅₀ (μM) 0.5 1.0 C_(max) (μM) 5.0 10.0 E_(max) (% valspodar ®) 88.0 80.0 EC₅₀: effective concentration for inhibiting 50% of transport of rhodamine 123 by murine Pgp. C_(max): concentration to obtain maximum inhibitory effect. E_(max): maximum effect compared to maximum effect obtained with 5 μM of valspodar.

EC₅₀: effective concentration for inhibiting 50% of transport of rhodamine 123 by murine Pgp.

C_(max): concentration to obtain maximum inhibitory effect.

E_(max): maximum effect compared to maximum effect obtained with 5 μM of valspodar.

2.3 Different Inhibitory Potency of Ivermectin Aglycone for Murine Pgp and Nematode Pgp

Inhibitory potency of ivermectin aglycone or ivermectin for murine Pgp or nematode Pgp is respectively measured in cells LLCPK1-mdr1a, which overexpress murine Pgp (MDR1), or in cell model developed by R. Prichard, which overexpress nematode Haemonchus contortus Pgp: hc-pgpA. The results show that ivermectin has similar potency to inhibit mammalian Pgp (EC₅₀=0.5 μM) and nematode HcPgpA (EC₅₀=0.6 μM) (Table 2, FIGS. 4A and 4B), while ivermectin aglycone has 5 times higher inhibitory potency for parasite HcPgpA (EC₅₀=0.5 μM) than for mammalian Pgp (EC₅₀=2.5 μM). These results clearly indicated that ivermectin aglycone is more potent in inhibiting nematode HcPgpA than mammalian Pgp.

TABLE 2 Concentration of half inhibitory effect of ivermectin and ivermectin aglycone in cells overexpression Pgp EC50 μM Ivermectin Ivermectin aglycone Murine Pgp 0.5 2.5 Nematode PgpA 0.6 0.5

2.4 Ability of Ivermectin Aglycone or Ivermectin Monosaccharide to Open GABA Receptor in Oresence of GABA.

of the ability of ivermectin aglycone or ivermectin monosaccharide to potentiate GABA action on GABA receptor, was assayed according to the protocol described in aforementioned part 1.7, and was compared with ivermectin.

The results displayed in table 4 show that ivermectine monosaccharide (IVM Monosaccharide) and ivermectine aglycone (IVM-Agly) are a weak agonist (EC₅₀=122.4 nM for IVM Monosaccharid and EC₅₀=215.1 nM for IVM-Agly) compared to ivermectin (EC₅₀=29 nM) (Table 3, FIG. 5). This result means that ivermectin monosaccharide and ivermectin aglycone have a much weaker neurotoxicity when compared with ivermectin, and a pharmaceutical use of ivermectin aglycone or ivermectin monosaccharide is possible.

TABLE 3 Parameters of interaction of IVM and derivatives with GABA receptors: EC₅₀ is the concentration needed to induce half of the maximal potentiation of GABA effect by MLs or derivatives. MLs EC₅₀ (nM) MOX 5.6 ± 1.5 IVM 29.3 ± 3.4  IVM Monosaccharide 122.4 ± 20.3  IVM Aglycone 215.1 ± 12.45

2.5 In Vivo Toxicity of Ivermectin Aglycone

In vivo toxicity text in Pgp-deficient mice confirms that the lethal dose for ivermectin is from 0.6 to 0.8 μmol/kg, as what is described by Schinket et al. (Cell (1994) 77, 491-502). On the contrary, ivermectin aglycone does not show any toxicity when it is administered with a dose till 10 times higher than that of ivermectin (FIG. 6). This result confirms that ivermectin aglycone has a much weaker in vivo toxicity compared to ivermectin and a pharmaceutical use of ivermectin aglycone is possible.

2.6 Reversal of Multidrug Resistance by Ivermectin Aglycone in Multidrug Resistant Tumor Cells

CEM/VLB cells and DC-3F/ADX cells described in aforementioned part 1.3 were plated into 96 well plates and allowed to grow for 24 h. They were then incubated 4 days with vinblastine (concentration range 0-1 μM) with or without IVM at 2.5 μM or ivermectin aglycone (IVM-Agly) at 2.5 and at 5 μM (FIG. 7); or 2 days with actinomycin D with actinomycin (concentration range 0.01-10 μM) with or without ivermectin (IVM) or ivermectin aglycone (IVM-Agly) at 5 μM (FIG. 8). Cytotoxicity was determined using the MTT test. IC₅₀ values were graphically determined and they represent the concentration needed for half cell survival. Fold reversal of multidrug resistance called reversion factors were the ratio of IC₅₀ for toxic drug alone/IC₅₀ for toxic drug in the presence of IVM-Agly.

IVM-Agly was able to reverse drug resistance in tumor cells overexpressing Pgp. CEM/VBL are highly resistant to VBL and cells were fully viable in 1 μM vinblastine while the parental cells are highly sensitive to VBL at concentrations below 0.001 μM. Co-incubation of VBL with IVM at 2.5 μM, or IVM-Agly at 5 μM provoke a clear left-shift of the viability cell curve (FIG. 7) demonstrating that cells are sensitized to VBL in presence of the tested compounds. In the presence of IVM at 2.5 μM the VBL IC₅₀ was 0.2 μM and in presence of IVM-Agly at 2.5 and 5 μM, the IC₅₀ values were 1 and 0.2 μM, reflecting that IVM-Agly's has similar inhibitory potency compared to that of IVM (Table 1). In addition, DC-3F/ADX viability was not altered by 1 μM actinomycin D while when combined with IVM or IVM-Agly at 5 μM actinomycin D became toxic (FIG. 8).

The results of FIG. 7, FIG. 8 and table 4 showed that the ability of ivermectin aglycone to reverse vinblastine or actinomycinD-resistance in tumor cells overexpression Pgp was of the same order of potency as ivermectin, which is potent inhibitor of MDR transporters.

TABLE 4 Comparison of IC50 and resistance factor (RF) for IVM and IVM Agly in multidrug-resistant cells IC50 (μM) RF CEM/VBL VBL Nd VBL + IVM 2.5 μM 0.2 VBL + IVM-Agly 2.5 μM 1.0 VBL + IVM-Agly 5 μM 0.2 DC-3F/ADX ActD 5.0 ActD + IVM 5 μM 0.11 45 ActD + IVM-Agly 5 μM 0.08 62 Nd: not determined

2.7 Reversal of anthelmintic resistance by ivermectin aglycone in C. elegans resistant to ivermectin

The reversal action of ivermectin aglycone (IVM-Agly) was studied on the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans resistant to ivermectin (IVR10). This strain has been previously selected under IVM pressure and it was shown to overexpressed P-gp homologue genes (James and Davey, 2009). We measured the ability of IVM-Agly to restore the development from eggs to adults which has been delayed by the ivermectin effect on the IVR10 strain, and compared its effect to that of the verapamil (VRP) reversal effect.

The resistance with respect to invermectin in C. elegans is measured according to the protocol described in aforementioned part 1.9.

IVM blocked the development of C. elegans IVR10 eggs at a concentration averaging 10 nM confirming that this strain is resistant to IVM. The IC₅₀ for IVM was 6.8±0.2 ng/ml (7.8±0.2 nM). verapamil, a known Pgp-reversing agent, at 8 μM had no effects on the development of the C. elegans when alone, and was able to restore the development of worms stopped in the presence of IVM. The curve of IVM efficacy was thus shifted to the left with the IC₅₀ of IVM reduced to 3.2±0.5 ng/ml (3.6±0.6 nM) when compared to IVM alone (FIG. 9, Table 5). IVM-Agly at 10 ng/ml was also able to significantly decrease the EC₅₀ of IVM to 4.5±0.3 ng/ml (5.1 nM, Table 5), and IVM-Agly alone at 10 ng/ml had no effects on the development of the C. elegans suggesting that IVM-Agly also reverse a Pgp-mediated drug resistance.

The lower EC₅₀ for ivermectin efficacy in IVM resistant C. elegans determined in presence of IVM-Agly testifies that IVM-Agly is able to partly reverse IVM resistance. Based on the fact that verapamil are well-known inhibitors of Pgp, their effects comparable to the one produced by IVM-Agly suggest that the IVM-Agly reversion also occurs through inhibition of Pgp-like transporters.

TABLE 5 Comparison of IC₅₀ and resistance factor (RF) for the reference reversal agent valspodar and verapamil and IVM-Agly in ivermectin-resistant C. elegans IC₅₀ (nM) RF IVM alone 7.8 ± 0.2 IVM + verapamil (4 μM) 3.6 ± 0.6 2.1 IVM + IVM-agly (11.4 nM) 5.1 ± 0.3 1.5 

1. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of formula I

wherein (i) R₁ is selected from the group consisting of —CH(CH₃)₂, CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, or cyclohexyl (ii) X represents —CH═CH— or —CH₂—CH₂—, wherein X is —CH₂—CH₂— only when R₁ is cyclohexyl; (iii) R₂ is —OH, and (iv)

R₃ is OH or NOH; a second active ingredient selected from the group consisting of a macrocyclic lactone antiparasitic agent, an antitumoral agent, an antiviral agent, an anti-epileptic agent, an antibacterial agent, and an antifungal agent, wherein the second active ingredient is a compound other than a compound of formula I; and, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier,
 2. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein (i) R₁ is selected from the group consisting of —CH(CH₃)₂, and —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, (ii) X represents —CH═CH—, (iii) R₂ is —OH, and (iv)

R₃ is OH, said compound corresponding to the compound of formula I(c):


3. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein (i) R₁ is cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH═CH—, (iii) R₂ is —OH, and (iv)

R₃ is OH, said compound corresponding to a compound of formula I(d):


4. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein (i) R₁ is cyclohexyl, (ii) X represents —CH₂—CH₂—, (iii) R₂ is —OH, and (iv)

R₃ is ═NOH, said compound corresponding a compound of formula I(e):


5. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the second active ingredient is chosen from an antiplasmodium, or an antileshmania agent.
 6. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the second active ingredient is an antiviral agent.
 7. A method of treatment of infections comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a pharmaceutical composition of claim
 1. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the infection is a viral infection, a bacterial infection or a fungal infection wherein the second active ingredient is an antiviral agent, antibacterial agent or an antifungal agent, respectively. 